Design Of Baffle In Upflow Anaeorobic Engineering Essay

The Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket procedure was developed by Lettinga in the Netherland during the early 1980s, as a comparatively simple effluent intervention system, in which no moving parts are present ( Lettinga et al, 1980 ) . It was foremost proposed for the intervention of high strength industrial waste, but shortly research for its application besides within domestic sewerage intervention was initiated. The UASB reactor is now going a popular intervention method for industrial H2O, because of its effectivity in handling high strength effluent. From the Seghezzo et Al. ( 1998 ) , the characteristics which make UASB reactor to be popular: High efficiency. Availability of farinaceous or woolly sludge, leting it to accomplish high chemical O demand ( COD ) remotion efficiencies without the demand of support stuff. Furthermore, the natural turbulency caused by caused by lifting gas bubbles which buoy the sludge, provides efficient effluent and biomass contact. Simplicity. The building and operation of the reactor is comparatively simple. Flexibility. Anaerobic intervention can easy be applied on either a really big or a really little graduated table. Besides, due to the granulation/blanketing in a UASB reactor, the solids and hydraulic keeping clip can be manipulated independently and efficaciously, therefore allowing the design to be based upon the degradative capacity of the biomass, ensuing in the decrease of intervention times from yearss to hours. ( Hickey et al. 1991 ) Low energy ingestion. Equally far as no warming of the influent is needed to make the on the job temperature and all works operations can be done by gravitation, the energy ingestion of the reactor is about negligible. Furthermore, energy is produced during the procedure in the signifier of methane. Low sludge production. The sludge production is low, when compared to anaerobic methods, due to the slow growing rate of anaerobiotic bacteriums. The sludge is good stabilized for the concluding disposal and has good dewatering features. It can be preserved for long periods of clip without a important decrease of activities, leting its usage a inoculant for the start-up of new reactors. Low foods and chemical demand. Particularly in the instance of sewerage, an equal and stable pH can be maintained without the add-on of chemicals. The UASB has been successfully used in the recent yesteryear to handle a assortment of industrial every bit good as domestic effluent. The applications for this engineering are spread outing to include intervention of chemical and petrochemical industry wastewater, fabric industry effluent, landfill leachates, every bit good as applications directed at transitions in the sulfur rhythm and remotions of metals. Furthermore, in warm climes the UASB construct is besides suited for intervention of domestic effluent.1.2 PROBLEM STATEMENTThe design and optimisation of Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket ( UASB ) reactor units required cognition of bio dynamicss, commixture, chemical reaction and else. However, the hydrokineticss within a UASB reactor is a critical importance to the public presentation of the system. Current effluent intervention design methods make premises of the commixture conditions and it is hence hard to foretell how vessel design for illustration, place of recesss, baffle s or dimensions which could impact hydrokineticss, therefore overall public presentation. Besides, the applications of the experimental techniques to look into flow Fieldss and mass concentration Fieldss are highly dearly-won and besides extremely limited in application. Thus, an appropriate factor which is design of baffles had been chosen ; and investigated the influences of hydrokineticss and public presentations of UASB reactor in this survey. Computational Fluid Dynamics ( CFD ) provides a mathematical method for anticipation of the consequence that effluent intervention procedure design features on the hydrokineticss from a cardinal degree. Progresss in CFD have provided an efficient, economical and clip salvaging tool to look into the hydrokineticss and reaction transition happening in a UASB reactor.AimThe thesis has two chief aims ; foremost is to carry on the public presentation survey of the designed Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket ( UASB ) reactor which can be applied to full graduated table systems. The Computational Fluid Dynamics ( CFD ) theoretical account presented here has the ability to pattern multiple stages ( in this instance the sludge mixture with H2O and air ) . Besides, the CFD theoretical account was developed and applied for the building of existent scale theoretical account. The 2nd aim is to analyze the effects of baffles to the hydrokineticss for illustration the fluid commixture form, flow field, matching and of the 3 stages ( liquid, solid and air ) of waste H2O intervention procedure. In this survey, the experiment would carry on with befuddled UASB reactor and the other is un-baffled UASB reactor to further analyze the influences to the hydrokineticss and overall public presentations.Chapter 2LITERATURE REVIEW2.1 TREATMENT PRINCIPLE OF UPFLOW ANAEROBIC SLUDGE BLANKET ( UASB ) ReactorThe Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket ( UASB ) procedure consists of an upflow of effluent through a dense sludge bed with high microbic activity. In the reactor, the solids profile varies from really heavy and farinaceous atoms with good settee ability near to the underside ( sludge bed ) , to more spread and light sludge atoms near to the top ( sludge cover ) . The UASB reactor can be divided into four constituents: sludge bed, sludge cover, gas-solid-liquid centrifuge and secondary compartment above the centrifuge. The sludge bed is situated at the underside of the reactor and consists of a dense sludge with exceeding subsiding features ; it is hence kept in the reactor. Above the sludge bed is the sludge cover, with solid showing lower concentration and settling speeds. The sludge cover consists of sludge atoms in a mixture with the biogas formed, and is therefore held in suspension. It is in these two compartments, the sludge bed and the sludge cover, that the entrance effluent is biologically degraded ( Chernicharo, 2007 ) .BiogasSludge atomGas bubblesBaffleSludge BlanketSludge bedDigestion CompartmentSettling Compartment3-phase centrifugeFigure 1 UASB reactorThe effluent flows upward in a perpendicular reactor through a cover of granulated sludge and bacteriums in the sludge interrupt down organic affair by anaerobiotic digestion, tran sforming it into biogas. The biogas-production and the influent flow cause natural turbulency in the reactor, which provides a good wastewater-biomass contact in the UASB reactor system ( Heertjes al. , 1978 ) . The upflow government and the gesture of the gas bubbles allow blending without mechanic aid. To avoid sludge washout, the 3 stage centrifuge is installed in the upper portion of the reactor. The gas formed is separated from the liquid, which allow sludge keeping and return. Above the centrifuge, a gas free zone is formed which is settling compartment, for deposit of solid atoms, and most of the atoms that have entered this zone will settle back to the reactor, whereas the smallest atoms will be washed out with the wastewater ( Angelidaki et al, 2007 ) . Baffles at the top of the reactor allow gases to get away and forestall the escape of the sludge cover. The 3-phase centrifuge, or the gas-liquid-solid ( GLS ) centrifuge, enables a high keeping capacity of big sums of high-activity biomass in the reactor. Through this characteristic, a solids abode clip ( SRT ) much higher than the hydraulic keeping clip can be achieved. Consequently, the care of high SRT is the major point of involvement in practical application of UASB procedure. This ability to develop and keep high-activity sludge within the reactor is the most of import facet of the UASB construct ( Chernicharo, 2007 ) .2.2 ANAEROBIC PROCESS IN THE UASB REACTORIn UASB reactor, anaerobiotic micro-organisms in the sludge cover digest the organic pollutants in the entrance effluent. Anaerobic digestion produces biogas ( a mixture of methane CH4, C dioxide CO2 and hints gases ) . After some hebdomads of ripening, farinaceous sludge signifiers and this is the chief outstanding feature of UASB reactor named phenomenon of granulation. The formation of granules is really of import becaus e bacteriums in granules are more efficient for biogas production than the flocculated biomass ( Wendland2008 ) . The anaerobiotic farinaceous sludge consists of microbic communities, with 1000000s of micro-organisms per gm biomass. Normally the granules are grouped dumbly together and hold first-class settling ability. The size wise each granule ranges from 0.1to 5mm. The microstructure of each granule will be dictated by the substrate features of the influent, for simple substrates merely methanogens are needed for complete debasement. For complex substrates, by and large the different bacterial populations will group together selectively in beds on top of each other ( Tiwari et al, 2006 ) . The farinaceous sludge enables the keeping of a really high figure of micro-organisms in the reactor, which means that a rapid debasement of organic affair can be obtained. In bend, a big volume of waste can be treated within a volume that takes up merely little sum of infinites. Besides, anaerobic sludge has or acquires good deposit belongingss, and is automatically assorted by the upflow forces of the entrance effluent and gas bubbles being generated in the reactor. For that ground, mechanical commixture can be omitted from an UASB reactor and therefore cut downing capital and care costs. This commixture besides encourages the formation of sludge granules.2.3 DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS OF UASB REACTORThe UASB reactor can be designed as handbill or rectangular. It is necessary to choose proper scope of operating parametric quantities for design, such as organic lading rate ( OLR ) , SLR, superficial liquid upflow speed and hydraulic keeping clip ( HRT ) . By and large, there are two ways to plan UASB reactor which are based on HRT or OLR. In the instance of low strength effluent, such as sewerage, it is the HRT instead than the OLR that determines the design method of UASB reactor. In position of the instead low organic tonss that can be applied in the intervention of dilute effluent, and the lower blending ensuing from the gas production, it is evident that more recess points are needed, in comparing with the same reactor under high organic burden rates condition ( Lettinga et al, 1983 ) .2.3.1 Low strength effluent – Hydraulic Retention TimeFor low strength effluent with COD input less than 5000mg/l, the design method should be calculated based on the HRT which can be controlled by volumetric hydraulic burden. It is note that HRT means the step of the mean length of clip that a soluble compound remains in the reactor. Anaerobic digestion depends on the biological activity of comparatively slowly reproducing methanogenic bacte riums. These bacteriums must be given sufficient clip to reproduce, so that they can replace cells loss with the wastewater sludge, and adjust their population size to follow fluctuations in organic burden. If the rate of bacteriums loss from the digester with the wastewater slurry exceeds the growing rate of the bacteriums, the bacterial population in the digester will be â€Å" washed out † of the system. This washout is avoided by keeping a sufficient HRT for guaranting that the bacterial cells remain in optimum concentration within the digester. The longer a substrate is kept under proper reaction conditions the more complete its debasement will go. However, the reaction rate will diminish with increasing HRT. Thus, the sum of effluent applied day-to-day to the reactor, per unit volume, is termed the volumetric hydraulic burden: ( 2.1 ) where: VHL = volumetric hydraulic burden ( d-1 ) Q = flow rate ( m3/d ) V = entire volume of reactor ( M3 ) The hydraulic keeping clip ( HRT ) , given in yearss, is expressed as ( 2.2 ) which gives that, ( 2.3 ) For tropical climes and semitropical climes experimental consequences showed that a HRT of six hours was sufficient to accomplish satisfactory consequences in a one compartment UASB. In table 1 nowadayss some guidelines for the constitution of HRTs in design of UASB reactors handling domestic effluent. Table 1: Applicable Hydraulic detainment clip for natural domestic effluent in a 4m tall UASB reactor at assorted temperature ranges. ( adopted from Lettinga et Al, 1991 ) Sewage temperature ( A °C ) HRT ( H ) Daily Average Minimum ( during 4 to 6 H ) 16-19 & gt ; 10 – 14 & gt ; 7 – 9 20-26 & gt ; 6 – 9 & gt ; 4 – 6 & gt ; 26 & gt ; 6 & gt ; 42.3.2 High strength effluent – Organic burden rateIn the COD input between 5000 – 15000mg/l or more, the design method should be calculated based on OLR. Bacteria have a maximal production rate depending on the type of reactor and substrate. The OLR is one of parametric quantities used to depict this production rate. Bacteria and micro-organisms have their specific growing rate that will accomplish a maximal production rate when they degrade substrate. Therefore, different OLR give different impacts to the reaction rate and efficiency every bit good. By definition, the volumetric OLR is the sum of organic affair applied daily to the reactor, per volume unit: ( 2.4 ) where: OLR = organic burden rate ( kgCOD/m3d ) S = influent substrate concentration ( kgCOD/m3 ) COD intervention efficiency can be calculated by: ( 2.5 ) For COD concentration in the scope of 2 to 5g/L. the public presentation of the reactor depends on the hydraulic burden rate and is independent of inflowing substrate concentration. For COD concentration greater than 5g/L it is recommended to thin the effluent to about 2g COD/L during primary start up of the reactor. Once the primary start – up of the reactor is over with the granulation of sludge, lading rates can be increased in stairss to convey the existent COD concentration of the effluent. The lading above 1-2kg COD/m3d is indispensable for proper operation of the reactor.2.3.3 Upflow speed, reactor tallness and volumeHigher upflow speed, favours better selective procedure for the sludge and better commixture in the reactor. However, excessively high upflow speed may do the incolumn acquire washed out during start up. Besides, during normal operation granules may acquire disintegrated and the ensuing fragments can easy be washed out from the reactor. Therefore, design th e optimal liquid upflow speeds ensuing favourable for granule growing and good fluid blending with the activated sludge. The upflow speed, V, is calculated from the relation between the inflowing flow rate and the cross subdivision of the reactor: ( 2.6 ) where: V = upflow speed ( thousand / H ) A = cross sectional country of the reactor ( M2 ) Alternatively, the upflow speed can besides be calculated from the ratio of the tallness and the hydraulic keeping clip: ( 2.7 ) where: H = tallness of the reactor ( m ) The pick of appropriate tallness of the reactor depends on the needed public presentation and economic considerations. Another of import facet is the place of the underside of the reactor, comparative to anchor degree. Construction costs can be reduced if the reactor underside can be placed at such degree that no pumping system of influent is required. The reactor tallness besides has importance for the efficiency of the organic affair remotion, as the upflow speed must non transcend the bound where the sludge washed out. The upflow speed, and reactor tallness are closely related in Equation 2.7. Based on the higher suited value of OLR, for given COD concentration, the volume of the reactor required is to be worked out as: ( 2.8 ) The volume of sludge should be less than 50 % of the reactor volume, worked out based on OLR, to avoid overloading of the reactor with regard to SLR. If the volume is non run intoing the demands, the OLR can be reduced to increase the volume.2.3.4 Influent Distribution SystemIt is of critical importance that the influent substrate is equally distributed in the lower portion of the reactor. Otherwise a close contact between biomass and substrate can non be obtained. The gas production will ever lend well to the commixture of the sludge bed, and hence the commixture within the digestion compartment will typically be hindered when handling effluent. Poor blending can take to the creative activity of discriminatory tracts through the sludge bed. For illustration, hydraulic short circuits, which in the long term will give a shorter sludge bed height and the formation of dead zones in the sludge bed ( Lettinga et al, 1991 ) . To avoid this job, the influent should be introduced at several points from the reactor underside. A particular influent distribution system can vouch equal distribution over the full reactor surface country. Therefore, the influent so passes a dense and expanded anaerobiotic farinaceous biomass bed and the biological intervention expeditiously. The figure of distribution pipes needed depend on the country of the cross subdivision of the reactor. Chernicharo ( 2007 ) suggests that Equation 2.9 be used to find the figure distribution pipes: ( 2.9 ) where: Nx = figure of distribution tubings A = country of cross subdivision of the reactor ( M2 ) Ax = influence country of each distributer ( M2 )2.4 Fluid Mixing In UASB ReactorThe flow form in the UASB reactor is one of the most of import factors to be considered for design to ease an efficient intervention. The efficiency of all bioprocesses is closely connected with commixture and conveyance phenomena, as an even blending form will supply good conditions for substrate conveyance to and from the microbic sums. Therefore, the transition of organic affair in the UASB reactor is governed by non merely the public presentation of the microbiological procedures, but besides the hydrokineticss of the reactor. However, the behaviour of the UASB procedure is non to the full understood. The commixture inside a UASB reactor is related to several parametric quantities, such as the type of influent-feeding device, upflow speed and biogas production rate, and different surveies have used different theoretical accounts to depict its hydrokineticss. Heertjes et Al ( 1978 ) assumed the flow to be wholly assorted within the sludge bed and sludge cover, although the sludge bed could besides hold dead infinites and returning flows. The more accurate theoretical accounts of the UASB fluid mechanicss where late highlighted by both Zeng et Al ( 2005 ) and Lou et Al ( 2006 ) , saying that the bing mathematical theoretical accounts of anaerobiotic digestion in UASB reactors mostly assume ideal commixture, therefore pretermiting concentration gradients. To make a more right theoretical account of the reactor fluid mechanicss, Zeng et Al ( 2005 ) alternatively used a two-compartment theoretical account, with the sludge bed and liquid zones described by a two-zone axially spread system. The survey showed that in a UASB reactor there is a strong dependance of the scattering coefficient on both reactor tallness and upflow speed.2.4.1 Computational Fluid Dynamics ( CFD )With visual aspect of general intent codifications, such as FLUENT, CFX and others, Computational Fluid Dynamics ( CFD ) has become progressively popular in environmental engineering. CFD codifications besides can be used to visualise elaborate flow phenom ena, a important benefit for the measuring of parametric quantities such as force per unit area, speed, phases volume fraction and else. The work mentioned above chiefly concentrated on using CFD codifications to obtain UASB reactor hydrokineticss informations, therefore doing good suggestions for UASB reactor design and optimisation. The theoretical accounts used were simplified two stages or individual stage systems. Related UASB reactor simulation based on gas-liquid-solid three stage theoretical accounts and flow procedure related reaction dynamicss theoretical accounts widely studied. For the first clip, the focal point lies on set uping hydrodynamics-reaction dynamicss coupled theoretical account of a gas-liquid-solid three stage waste H2O intervention system utilizing CFD simulation followed by experimental confirmation in this paper. Although UASB reactor has been used in environmental engineering applications for many old ages, lithe research has been published on UASB reactor mold. The chief aims of this survey are to develop an easy to utilize of CFD theoretical account of the important procedure parametric quantities, based on cardinal scientific discipline and to formalize the theoretical account by usage of experiment consequences. Due to non much researching on baffled UASB reactor, our conjugate theoretical account was applied and validated on a waste H2O intervention procedure and look into the overall public presentation. Once developed and assessed with the all-out test consequences, the theoretical account can be employed to analyse the consequence of waste H2O quality features on the public presentation of the procedure. It is expected that this survey will turn out utile in using UASB engineering.Chapter 3Methodology3.1 Computational Fluid Dynamics ( CFD ) simulationThe commercial Computational Flui d Dynamics ( CFD ) codification ANYSYS FLUENT was used to imitate the two and three dimensional flow field before building of the Upflow Anaerobic Sludge Blanket ( UAB ) reactor. A conceptual theoretical account was developed by the package and this proposed CFD theoretical account is composed of the nucleus hydrokineticss theoretical account for the liquid and gaseous stages, and coupled with the sludge. CFD simulation helps to depict flow of the liquid and gas constituents of the multiphase flow. The uninterrupted stage is the effluent and sludge and the spread stage is air or biogas. The premises made for the spread stage are: The bubbles are spherical The bubbles have changeless diameter No hits, coalescency or break-up of bubbles The gas stage physical belongingss for illustration denseness and viscousness were air belongingss. For the liquid stage, the denseness was considered to be that of H2O, while in footings of viscousness.3.1.1 Eulerian-Eulerian theoretical accountThis theoretical account is help to work out a set of impulse and continuity equations for each stage. Applications of Eulerian multiphase theoretical account include bubble column, risers, atom suspensions and fluidized beds ( Saurel and Abgrall 1999 ; Mathisesen et al.2000 ) . In this survey, two dimensional Eulerian-Eulerian three stage fluid theoretical account has been employed to depict the flow behaviour of each stage, so the biogas, effluent and sludge granules are wholly treated as different continua, with effluent as a primary stage, and the gas and sludge granules as the secondary stages. This theoretical account was chosen because of the high proportion of gas bubbles and granules particulates ( Bin et al. 2003 ) .3.1.2 Species Tr ansport and Reaction theoretical accountCFD codifications can pattern the commixture and conveyance of chemical species by work outing preservation equations depicting convection, diffusion and reaction beginnings for each constituent species ( Sivertsen and Djilali, 2005 ) . Multiple coincident chemical reactions can be modeled, with reactions happening in the majority stage ( volumetric reaction ) , on inside wall of the reactor or atom surfaces.3.1.3 Numeric solutionThe complete geometry of the UASB reactor have analyzed by a computational planar mesh. For efficiency usage of computational clip, simulation of the UASB reactor exploits the symmetric geometry of the reactor in a planar surface. The meshes were created in the ANYSYS Fluent as a preprocessor plan and exported into the ANYSYS Fluent CFD flow patterning package bundle to work out the continuity and impulse equations. In Eulerian-Eulerian theoretical account, each stage was assumed incompressible. The effluent was regarded as assorted liquid, ab initio incorporating pure H2O and some chemical wastes and the denseness was determined by utilizing a volume weighted mixing jurisprudence. The sludge granules took up approximately 35 % of the volume in the bed part and were considered to be 1mm diameter spherical solid granules. The biogas was assumed to hold a denseness by the incompressible-ideal-gas jurisprudence ( FLUENT 6.0 Users ‘ usher, 2001 ) . The gas stage volume fraction was related to gas production in reaction and the gas bubbles were assumed to hold a diameter of 0.1 millimeter. The simulation consequences vary small with grid denseness so truncation mistakes in the numerical simulation can be neglected. An analysis independent of the grid was performed to extinguish mistakes in simulation truth, numerical stableness, convergence and computational stairss related to grid saltiness ( Ait-Ali-Yahia et al.2002 ; Lu et al,2009 ) .3.2 Experimental DesignThe research is conduct with two different types of UASB reactor theoretical account which are baffled and un-baffled to further analyze the influences of fluid blending form in the reactor. Figure 1 shows the conventional diagram with dimensions of 1m ten 0.2m. Degree centigrades: UsersKok FaiDesktopUASB.pngFigure 2: Conventional Diagram of the UASB reactor theoretical account. All units are in metre.Table 2: Chief characteristic of the UASB reactor theoretical accountParameter Value Design liquid flow rate ( l/h ) Hydraulic keeping clip ( H ) Entire Height ( m ) Water deepness ( m ) Sludge deepness ( m ) Internal diameter ( m ) Internal cross sectional country ( M2 ) Organic burden ( kg COD/m3/d )Table 3: composing of waste H2OIncoming waste H2O Value Entire BOD ( mg/l ) Entire COD ( mg/l ) Chloride ( mg/l ) Sulfate ( mg/l )–––One of the UASB reactors is baffled and the other one is un-baffled. Both of these reactors operated with the same hydraulic keeping clip, organic burden and composing of waste H2O which are the changeless variables in this experiment. The differences of the chemical waste substances removal efficiency between both reactors would be the consequence of this survey.3.2 Sampling and AnalysisComposite sample of the reactors influent and wastewater were collected on a day-to-day footing and analyzed for COD, BOD, sulphate and others chemical waste substances. Sludge sampling was carried out through side ports in the sludge zone of the reactor. The flow rate was control by the valve and continuously regulated by a pump.3.2.1 BOD trialBiochemical O demand ( BOD ) is the sum of dissolved O by aerophilic biological beings in a organic structure of H2O to breakdown organic stuff nowadays in a given H2O sample at certain temperature. BOD besides can be us ed as gage of the effectivity of UASB reactor. The process of the BOD trial: The dilution H2O was prepared by 1ml each of phosphate buffer, Mg sulphate, Ca chloride, ferrous chloride solution into 1L distilled H2O. 1ml effluent sample was added into a 500ml beaker. Dilution H2O was added up to 300ml into same beaker. The pH value was adjusted to 6.5 to 7.5 by added acid or base. 300ml dilution H2O was prepared as control. All prepared samples and control put in 300ml-incubation bottle. The DO for each sample was measured by utilizing Dissolved Oxygen Meter. All the bottles put in BOD brooder for 5 yearss. The temperature was set at 20A °C. The BOD5 was calculated harmonizing to the expression below: Where: D1 = DO value in initial sample D2 = DO value in concluding sample P = denary volumetric fraction of sample used Or ; Dilution factor = Bottle volume ( 300ml ) / sample volume3.2.2 COD trialThe chemical Oxygen Demand ( COD ) trial measured the O equivalent consumed by organic affair in a sample during strong chemical oxidization. It can assist to foretell the O demands of the wastewater and is used for monitoring and control of discharges, and for accessing reactor public presentations. The trial method: The effluent sample was oxidized by digesting in a certain reaction tubing with sulfuric acid and K bichromate in the presences of a Ag sulfate accelerator for 2 hours at a temperature of 150A °C. The sum of bichromate reduced is relative to the COD. A reagent space was prepared for each batch of tubings in order to counterbalance for the oxygen demand of the reagent itself. Over the scope of the trial a series of colourss from xanthous through green to blue are produced. The colour is declarative of the chemical O demand and its measured by utilizing photometer.

Health Sanitation Practices Essay

* a protected well or a developed spring with an outlet but without a distribution system * indicated for rural areas * serves 15-25 households; its outreach is not more than 250 m from the farthest user * yields 40-140 L/ min Level II (Communal Faucet or Stand Posts) * With a source, reservoir, piped distribution network and communal faucets * Located at not more than 25 m from the farthest house * Delivers 40-80 L of water per capital per day to an average of 100 households * Fit for rural areas where houses are densely clustered Level III (Individual House Connections or Waterworks System) * With a source, reservoir, piped distributor network and household taps * Fit for densely populated urban communities * Requires minimum treatment or disinfection Proper Excreta and Sewage Disposal Program EHS sets policies on approved types of toilet facilities: Level I * Non-water carriage toilet facility – no water necessary to wash the waste into receiving space e.g. pit latrines, reed odorless earth closet. * Toilet facilities requiring small amount of water to wash the waste into the receiving space e.g. pour flush toilet & aqua privies Level II * On site toilet facilities of the water carriage type with water-sealed and flush type with septic vault/tank disposal. Level III * Water carriage types of toilet facilities connected to septic tanks and/or to sewerage system to treatment plant. Objective: The objective of this study is to determine sanitation practices and preferences in sitio ganha-an.By examining differences between current practices and preferences, the study assesses if the communities are satisfied with their current sanitation options and if there is a demand for increased sanitation coverage and better facilities. Water Supply. The major problem for poor people in most countries is access to safe water in adequate quantity, with reasonable convenience, and at an affordable cost. Solutions include local grants to install household gutters and rainwater capture tanks; local wells designed to resist pollution; and small networks of water points served by a local well, borehole, or spring. The supply problems of major cities require integrated approaches that combine demand management, leak repair, backflow prevention, wastewater reuse, and the efficient, sustainable exploitation of sources. Solid Waste Disposal. The interdependence of sanitation aspects is illustrated by the need for adequate solid waste removal to prevent the blockage of rainwater drains. Collection of refuse in hot climates must be frequent since piles attract flies and rats, and it should rely more on local labor-intensive methods rather than on expensive trucks. For the operation to be successful requires close cooperation between the users and providers of the service, and financing must come either from municipal recurrent funds and/or user fees. Excreta Disposal. Large sewerage infrastructure projects tend to be too expensive for the vast majority of urban and rural people in developing countries, and it may be impossible to build a sewage network infrastructure in congested, narrow streets. On-site options include latrines, pourflush toilets, and septic tanks. There should be evaluated at each location according to needs and priorities. As water use grows in villages and towns, wastewater from washing and bathing (sullage) can be cost-effectively handled by a separate drainage system coupled to on-site excreta disposal. Garbage is a never ending cycle. Every day each household produces a significant amount of trash. The more we consume the more garbage we incur. Garbage disposal has been a monumental problem ever since. ( Yapchiongco, 2012) For a lack of historic time series of reliable nationally representative drinking water quality data, the JMP cannot report on the actual water safety aspect of the MDG drinking water target. The proxy indicator used in the global survey methodology – â€Å"use of improved drinking water sources† – does not guarantee that the quality of drinking water consumed by people meets the standards for safe drinking water as proposed in the WHO Guidelines for Drinking water Quality (WHO, 2011). Pollution from domestic and industrial sources, geogenic contamination, and poor sanitation and hygiene all threaten the safety of drinking water sources. In recognition of these threats, many drinking water supply operators and regulators are adopting an integrated risk assessment and management approach that takes risk spots and events into account along the chain of events from source to tap. Strategies include quantitative microbial risk assessment (QMRA), sanitary inspections, the application of health-based targets and water safety plans (WSPs). The practice of household water treatment and safe storage (HWTS) can help improve water quality at the point of consumption, especially when drinking water sources are distant, unreliable or unsafe. However, HWTS is a stopgap measure only and does not replace the obligation of a service provider to provide access to safe drinking water. It is intended for people who have no access to improved drinking water sources at all, for people with access to improved sources outside of their home or premises (i.e. when contamination can occur during transport and storage), for people with unreliable piped supplies who have to store water to bridge the gaps between deliveries, and for people in emergency situations. People relying on unimproved drinking water sources who apply an appropriate household water treatment method are still not considered to have sustainable access to safe drinking water. Doing so would absolve the providers of their responsibility to provide safe drinking water and in effect transfer this responsibility to consumers. http://www.wssinfo.org/fileadmin/user_upload/resources/report_wash_low.pdf

Exercises and Problems Essay

Carry Yoki’s Lounge consists of the following. Carry, the owner believed that people would come to hear a band play on Friday, Saturday, and Sunday evening. During the remainder of the week, she believed her customers would watch sporting events on several television sets located throughout the lounge. Carry employed two bartenders, three servers, two assistant servers, two cooks, one dishwasher and a clean-up person. She had a bar, 15 barstools, 4 tables, 40 chairs, 4 television sets, and one satellite dish. She had an oven, stove, grill, refrigerator, sinks, dishes, and glassware. Carry started this business with $50,000 of her own money, and she borrowed $150,000 from the bank. From this description, list each of the scarce resources that are used in Carry Yoki’s Lounge. Entrepreneurial resource: Carry Yoki. Labor resources: 2 bartenders, 3 servers, 2 assistant servers, 2 cooks, 1 dishwasher, and a clean-up person. Economic capital resources: 1 bar, 15 bar stools, 4 tables, 40 chairs, 4 television sets, one satellite dish, oven, stove, grill, refrigerator, sinks, dishes, and glassware. Financial capital resources: $50,000 of her own money and $150,000 from the bank. Joe Fixit has an appliance repair business. He has more business than he can handle and wants to hire another repair person. Joe estimates that three appliances can be repaired each hour by a qualified person. Joe bills out labor at $45 per hour, but he stipulates that the minimum charge for appliance repair estimates is $30 plus parts. What is the marginal revenue product of a qualified repair person? 3 appliance repairs per hour times $30 = $90 marginal revenue product. What is the maximum hourly wage that he would pay an employee? Therefore, since we bring in an additional $90 per hour by hiring one more repair person, the maximum wage we would pay is $90. Sam Smith is currently employed as a mechanical engineer and is paid $65,000 per year plus benefits that are equal to 30% of his salary. Sam wants to begin a consulting firm and decides to leave his current job. After his first year in business, Sam’s accountant informed him that he had made $45,000 with his consulting business. Sam also notices that he paid $6,000 for a health insurance policy, which was his total benefit during his first  year. What was Sam’s opportunity cost? Sam gave up $65,000 in salary plus $19,500 in benefits or a total of $84,500. Sara Lee just graduated from college with a degree in accounting. She had five job offers: Bean Counters CPA, $35,000; Assets R Us, $27,000; The Debit Store, $30,000; J & J’s CPA’s, $33,000; and The Double Entry Shop, $40,000. What was her opportunity cost if she accepted the job with The Double Entry Shop? Sara gave up Bean Counters CPA at $35,000 which was the highest value surrendered. Sam Club earned $50,000 and paid taxes of $10,000. Samantha Heart earned $60,000 and paid taxes of $12,000. If these taxes were paid to the same government agency, is the tax on income progressive, regressive, or proportional? Why did you reach this conclusion? As show below these taxes are proportional because they both paid the same percentage of their income in taxes. 6.You read an article in this morning’s paper that stated inflation was accelerating and would reach six percent this year. If the FED believes this statement and it has set a goal of three percent inflation, what will it likely do at the next meeting of the Federal Open Market Committee? They would most likely raise the discount rate, the federal funds rate, or both. They could also sell more government securities to decrease the money supply. 7.A friend came into your office and said that his bank was out to kill small businesses. You asked him what he meant by this remark, and he said that he read an article that said his bank had just loaned $10 million to a major automobile manufacturer at a rate of 3 percent, which is less than prime. But your friend just borrowed $50,000 from the same bank and they charged him prime plus four percent, or 7.5 percent. Your friend has been in business for two years, and last year he had a loss of $2,000. How can you explain this difference in interest rate to your friend? The bank charges interest based upon risk. The probability of the automobile manufacturer defaulting on the loan is very remote; therefore, they get a favorable interest rate from the bank. Since your friend lost money last year and since over 40 percent of all small businesses fail in the first five years, the bank’s risk is much higher and therefore they will charge a higher interest rate. 1.Carry Yoki’s Lounge consists of the following. Carry, the owner believed  that people would come to hear a band play on Friday, Saturday, and Sunday evening. During the remainder of the week, she believed her customers would watch sporting events on several television sets located throughout the lounge. Carry employed two bartenders, three servers, two assistant servers, two cooks, one dishwasher and a clean-up person. She had a bar, 15 barstools, 4 tables, 40 chairs, 4 television sets, and one satellite dish. She had an oven, stove, grill, refrigerator, sinks, dishes, and glassware. Carry started this business with $50,000 of her own money, and she borrowed $150,000 from the bank. From this description, list each of the scarce resources that are used in Carry Yoki’s Lounge. 2.Joe Fixit has an appliance repair business. He has more business than he can handle and wants to hire another repair person. Joe estimates that three appliances can be repaired each hour by a qualified person. Joe bills out labor at $45 per hour, but he stipulates that the minimum charge for appliance repair estimates is $30 plus parts. What is the marginal revenue product of a qualified repair person? What is the maximum hourly wage that he would pay an employee? 3.Sam Smith is currently employed as a mechanical engineer and is paid $65,000 per year plus benefits that are equal to 30% of his salary. Sam wants to begin a consulting firm and decides to leave his current job. After his first year in business, Sam’s accountant informed him that he had made $45,000 with his consulting business. Sam also notices that he paid $6,000 for a health insurance policy, which was his total benefit during his first year. What was Sam’s opportunity cost? 4.Sara Lee just graduated from college with a degree in accounting. She had five job offers: Bean Counters CPA, $35,000; Assets R Us, $27,000; The Debit Store, $30,000; J & J’s CPA’s, $33,000; and The Double Entry Shop, $40,000. What was her opportunity cost if she accepted the job with The Double Entry Shop? 5.Sam Club earned $50,000 and paid taxes of $10,000. Samantha Heart earned $60,000 and paid taxes of $12,000. If these taxes were paid to the same government agency, is the tax on income progressive, regressive, or proportional? Why did you reach this conclusion? 6.You read an article in this morning’s paper that stated inflation was accelerating and would reach six percent this year. If the FED believes this statement and it has set a goal of three percent inflation, what will it likely do at the next meeting of the Federal Open Market Committee? 7.A friend came into your office and  said that his bank was out to kill small businesses. You asked him what he meant by this remark, and he said that he read an article that said his bank had just loaned $10 million to a major automobile manufacturer at a rate of 3 percent, which is less than prime. But your friend just borrowed $50,000 from the same bank and they charged him prime plus four percent, or 7.5 percent. Your friend has been in business for two years, and last year he had a loss of $2,000. How can you explain this difference in interest rate to your friend? Carol Jones wanted her business to increase sales by 50 percent over the next five years. To do this, she must hire three more people. She wanted to determine how to evaluate these people, so she lists their job specifications and develops job descriptions. She also listed where these employees would work and what training they would require. What management functions is Carol performing, and how do they apply to this scenario? Carol is performing the management function of planning because she wants to increase sales by 50% over the next five years. Specifically she is determining her strategic goals and beginning a long-range plan. She is also performing the management function of staffing because she is about to hire three more people, to evaluate them, and train them. Carol is also performing the management function of control when she develops the standards for evaluating her personnel. Jerry is a personnel manager for a large retail department store. He just received a memo stating that the company will build three new stores in Phoenix over the next five years, with one store opening in 24 months, one opening in 36 months, and one opening in 60 months. The memo that Jerry received relates to what type of business plan? The memo that Jerry received relates to the strategic overall plan for his company. If Jerry is directed to develop a personnel plan for Phoenix, what type of planning will Jerry be doing? When Jerry develops a personnel plan he will be working on a functional plan (personnel) designed to support the strategic plan. Joe Doe just started a business. He wants the business income to flow directly to his own personal tax return, but he wants to make sure that he has limited liability. What form(s) of business ownership would you recommend for Joe? Recommend either  a Subchapter S corporation or a Limited Liability Company. You buy 1,000 shares of ABC Company at $6 per share. The company is sued for millions of dolla rs, and ABC Co. is forced into bankruptcy. The newspaper stated that the cost of this suit would amount to $12 per share of stock. What is the maximum amount of money you can lose with this investment? Why? You can only lose $6,000 ($6 per share times the 1,000 shares). Since this is your investment in the corporation it is also your total liability. The price of $12 reported in the paper is irrelevant in this situation. Sam Jones, Mary Adams, and Larry Brown have been talking about starting their own business for several years. Sam is an electronic repairman, Mary is a partner in a large law firm, and Larry is an excellent sales person. Sam and Larry will work in the business on an equal basis. It will cost $100,000 to start this business. Sam has no money, Mary has $60,000 and Larry has $40,000. If they form a partnership, how would you recommend that they organize? You should recommend a limited partnership with Mary as the limited partner. Sam and Larry would be general partners and would each be paid a salary. The profits that accrue to the partnership after all expenses are paid would be divided with sixty percent going to Mary and forty percent going to Larry if share of profits were only based on financial contribution. The actual division o f the profits would be based on a partnership agreement because Sam would not want to have unlimited liability and no share of the profits. This business could also be formed as an LLC; then none of them would have unlimited liability, but would Mary agree to this since she is putting up most of the financial capital? This problem was inserted to stimulate discussion. Barry McGuire wants to purchase a dry-cleaning establishment. Barry has heard of the SWOT analysis and wants to use this methodology to determine whether he should purchase the business. He found the following information: The dry cleaner is located in a busy shopping center and currently does all the cleaning on the premises. It has three commercial accounts that comprise 20 percent of its business. The population in the local area is growing by approximately 6 percent per year. Located across the street in another shopping center is a price-cutting dry cleaner that advertises heavily in the local area. With the exception of this shopping center and the property across the street, all property in this area is zoned residential. Most of the residents in this area are professional  people who wear suits to work. The shop has an assumable lease, and the lease has a fixed rental fee for the next five years. Barry has had five years of experience in the dry-cleaning business, and would run the shop full time. Based on this information, perform a SWOT analysis. Strengths include the fact that Barry has five years of experience, dry cleaning business is already established, assumable lease, and fixed rent for next five years, commercial accounts for 20% of business. Weakness, none listed. Opportunities include fact that business is located in a busy shopping center, population is growing at 6% a year, residential area with residents being professional and wearing suits to work, no new competition because of favorable zoning. Threats include competition from price cutting business across the street. Joe Latte wants to open up a coffee and gelato shop. He figures with the popularity of coffee shops and Italian ice cream shops that a combination business will be a clear winner. Write a two page paper describing the following elements of a business plan: description of the business, factors affecting location, and product or service to be offered. This should be graded based on the rigor of the class and how much is assigned by the instructor for outside research. We recommend team discussion and specifics with regard to these items. 8 Joe Latte has completed a business plan and determined that it will take $120,000 to open the coffee and gelato shop. He has $30,000 of his own money and will have to obtain $90,000 in loans or grants. How should Joe go about getting financing? What is the probability that he can obtain a grant to start an Italian ice cream shop? Joe’s first step should be to complete a business plan and contact the local Small Business Association (SBA) and SCORE office to determine what financing is available. He should also check with local and state agencies for small business assistance. Depending on his credit rating and bank standing he can also contact local banks and financial institutions and shop for the best loan and interest rates. Chances of obtaining a grant for this type of business are very slim.

Intellectual and cultural life of colonial Mexico Essay

Mexico is a land whose history is as rich and diverse as its people. Prior to the arrival of the Spaniards to Mexico the natives enjoy great progress and technology. They’ve printed books, made paper and pigments, painted murals and manuscripts, cultivated crops, made structures and lavish designs in architecture that some historians say even outdates that of Egypt, engaged in medical practice and planted botanical crops. However with the invasion of the Spanish Empire that happened between the year 1521 to 1600 the natives who posses such technologies were suppressed by the Colonialist. Various indigenous groups disappeared since the Spaniards pushed to promote Catholicism in the country in their attempt to eliminate anything that links the people from their â€Å"Pagan past†. They also brought with them superior technology from Europe which hindered the progress of technologies that they have developed before. The diversity and development of Native Mexico is shown as manuscripts of maps of the different areas in Mexico are found in â€Å"the six Relaciones Geograficas maps†. The rich text combines native and European colorants a clear manifestation of their rich technology even before the colonialist came to the country. The inhabitants of Mexico today can be classified into two groups, the Indigenous Peoples who lived before the 14th century and the Immigration people who arrived with the Spanish conquest. The former, which are the indigenous peoples are the Toltec, Omeca, Zapotec, Maya, Aztec, Huichol, Purapecha, Tarahumara and etc. The later on the other hand are a mix of different cultures due to the wave of migration brought about by the Spanish Conquerors. For us to fully understand the impact that colonization has brought to the natives, we need to discuss their culture and practices in terms of social stratification, culture, religion and economy prior to the coming of the Spaniards. Native Mexico Mexico was the site of some of the earliest and most advanced civilizations in the western hemisphere. Its human history began with the aboriginal people we call American Indians or Amerids. Archeological records date back to older than that civilization of Egypt. They were scattered groups of nomadic hunters. The Amerids then became diverse and divided into sub classes differentiating in culture, legend and practices. These are the Toltec, Maya, Omeca, Zapotec, Aztec, Purapecha, Huichol, Tarahumara and etc. Clash of cultural minorities happened and led to the fall of different empires. When the Spaniards came to Mexico the Maya and Aztec groups where predominant in the region. Their economy greatly relies on agriculture and herding. It was a society divide into three classes: slave, commoner and nobility. However, far different from that of the Spaniard, the slaves can buy their freedom and when he manages to escape from his master and makes his was safely to the royal palace he is then given immediate freedom. Social mobility was also practiced by all the classes regardless of race as long as one has enough money and resources to do so. With regards to religion, they have numerous Gods. In Aztec society in particular, their gods are Uitzilopochtli (sun god), Tlaloc (rain god), Coyolxauhqui (moon goddess), and Quetzalcoatl (inventor of writing and the calendar and also associated with the planet Venus and with resurrection) . Animal and human sacrifices were also made to honor warriors during the war and for religious ceremonies. Prisoners were also sacrificed for less important rituals. The Spaniards found the ritual horrendous since it involves human sacrifices which are against Catholic faith. The ritual would take place on top of a pyramid where the human sacrifice is placed on a convex stone and the priest would reap their hearts out using a knife (Almanac, 2005). As of press time, the modern Aztecs people number for over a million and are the largest aboriginal group in the country. Most of them are farmers who have no access to education and most are illiterate.

Issues in International Management Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3000 words

Issues in International Management - Essay Example Concerning this aspect, the framework incorporates two vital aspects i.e. global integration of the value chain activities and manufacturing of products along with processes in correspondence with the needs of the local market (Cieri & et. al., 2005). In accordance with the context of IHRM, certain prevalent issues can be apparently observed that entail cultural diversity, people management and employee relation among others (Taylor, 2007). Keeping up with these issues, this essay intends to discuss about the various structures being followed by the MNCs/MNEs in order to mitigate the global challenges associated with the applicability of the IHRM. The essay will further discuss upon the IHRM designs been adopted by MNCs and the benefits associated with the structure being framed. Apart from this, the essay will also discuss about various strategies that pursue by the MNEs for global development. According to Howard Perlmutter’s theory, three patterns of MNCs can be reflected. In this regard, ethnocentric orientation reflects about the management intentions in employing national employees rather than non-native employees. In this respect, the management has the perception that the internal employees are capable of handling operations along with the issues pertaining to the international level. One of the advantages of such orientation is that the valued position is being occupied by the talented nationals rather than the external employees. Apart from this advantage, one of the drawbacks associated with this model is that the MNEs get deprive of practicing diversified culture. Furthermore, the MNEs also get deprive of knowledge from the external source, thereby facing the challenge of international short sightedness. This might create hurdle in mitigating the required global demands (Perlmutter, 2010). One such MNC, which can be apparently observed to comply with ethn ocentric orientation in the form of practicing diversified culture, is Hong Kong

Federal Contracting Activitities and Contract Types Assignment

Federal Contracting Activitities and Contract Types - Assignment Example age of time it seems that VectorCal has been thrown out of track due to the penetration of different firm and its disability (as a result of using feeble forecasting method) to break even with the consumers increasing demand. As the sayings go ‘the customer is always right’, it seems VectorCal had nowhere to go. Mycompany initially aims to serve the consumers locally and then in foreseeable future, will fare on international horizon. As aforementioned, the market for drones had expanded at a high pace as a result of insecurities arising at an alarming rate, Mycomapny was determined and decided to create more demonstrative and uncontaminated drones, which they did and successfully too. However, establishing a sense of success simply on the basis of making more friendly drones was incompatible, as no one can dispatch the fact that there were several successful firms operating in drone making business, way before we joined the market. On the other hand, ignoring the gaps these old firms were providing would have been a fool’s act; hence, the launching of Mycompany that had been as successful as any other established firm. Lastly on of the most appreciating aspect of the company’s technology advancement was launched in the market recently and the response they received was spectac ular, which also earned them one of the government contracts; this advanced technology is a drone in a size of bug and is more effective and efficient than the large Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs). In 2011 VectorCal won the government contract as a result of uproar for drone use in Northeast Florida, which in turn was a result of producing more jobs. Even before getting the contract, this company had hired extra pair of hands to overcome their one of the most lacking point – loe production of drones. Their one of the successful drone by the name of TechPri was launched in the market in 2003. This drone was initially fabricated for the use of US army, but had been exported on

Advertising theory Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Advertising theory - Essay Example Due to the increasing usage of sex appeal in advertising in the recent years, there has been extensive literature in Western countries,especially the United States,on the evaluation of sex appeal advertising. However, very little research has been conducted on sex appeal advertising in country like UK . As we all know, UK has become one of the most attractive markets in the world and advertising has become one of its fastest-growing industries. To answer these managerial questions, international advertisers need to understand how British consumers respond to different advertising strategies, including sex appeal strategies. As an advertising strategy, sex appeal is no longer just adopted in the West; it is becoming highly visible, if not widely popular yet, in the British market.This study has been conducted by Sanjay Putrevu. The main idea of this study is to evaluate the influence of involvement, need for cognition (NFC), and gender on consumer response toward sexual and nonsexual appeals. Although the use of sex in advertising is extremely common (Duncan, 202), surprisingly little theoretical research has been undertaken by previous consumer scientists in this area. As Reichert (p. 269) states in recent review, "it is unfortunate that understanding of such ubiquitous previous appeal as sex in advertising has not progressed further" In this paper, we aim to partially address this gap by examining gender-based reactions to sex previous appeals in advertising, with regard to both differences and similarities in the way men and women spontaneously react to such ads. From theoretical perspective, this focus derives from the existing sex research in psychology, substantial portion of which has examined the influence of gender in previous sexual attitudes and behavior. From practical perspective, such an exploration carries obvious implications for managers wishing to understand when and why the use of sex previous appeals might be effective across gender-defined s egments. Although there are many aspects of sex in advertising that could be of interest, we circumscribe our investigation along two dimensions: () We focus on reactions to gratuitous sex previous appeals; and (b) we examine processing of such ads under constrained processing conditions. The rationale for focusing on gratuitous previous sexual appeals is practical one. Ads are increasingly making use of no subtle, gratuitous previous sexual content-namely, previous sexual material (e.g., images) that many are likely to regard as being unnecessarily explicit, perception that is heightened when the image is also irrelevant to the advertised product. This study consists of three studies Study 1: Involvement Study 2: Need for Cognition (NFC) Study 3: Gender Study 1: Involvement The study shows that high involvement respondents produced more negative advertisement implementation and brand thoughts toward the sexual appeals than the non-sexual appeals. These consumers also seem to find the sexual content to be off-putting. These results suggest that sexual appeals may be effectual when targeting low-involvement consumers, but that they might not work well for high-involvement customers. Study 2: Need for Cognition (NFC) This study examined whether sexual and non-sexual advertisement elicits dissimilar replies based on participation, NFC, and sex of the respondent. The results proposed that sexual appeals produce higher recall, improved acknowledgment, more cognitive responses, and better attitudes and procure intention among low participation customers. Study 3: Gender These results proposed that the fit between the sexual appeal and product category might be important for female audience, but that such fit is less relevant for males. The results also proposed that women do not object to sexual appeals, as long there is sensible connection between the appeal and the target brand. Female aversion for sexual appeals seems to emerge when the appeals